With the war in Iran paused currently (April 20), we need to take a look at their nuclear capabilities and the nuclear capabilities of the world.

In this episode I define the nuclear dilemma, nuclear proliferation and non-proliferation, the science of nuclear weapon development and I wrap up talking about Iran’s nuclear program.

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Sources:

What is the nuclear dilemma?

• Waltz, K. N. (1990). Nuclear myths and political realities. The American Politics Science Review. Vol. 84, No. 3, pp 731-745. 1962764. 
• Sagan, S. (1994). The perils of proliferation: Organization theory, deterrence theory, and the spread of nuclear weapons. International Security. Vol. 18, No. 4 (pp. 66-107). 2539178. 
• Payne, K. B. (2019). Realism, idealism, deterrence, and disarmament. Strategic Studies Quarterly. Vol. 13, No. 3 (pp. 7-37). https://www.jstor.org/stable/26760126.
• Morgenthau, H. J. (1964). The four paradoxes of nuclear strategy. The American Political Science Review. Vol. 58, No. 1 (pp. 23-35).1952752. 
• Nuclear weapons: Who has what at a glance. (2026). Arms Control Association. https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/nuclear-weapons-who-has-what-glance.
• Britain tests its first nuclear weapon. (2023). EBSCO. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/britain-tests-its-first-nuclear-weapon.
• 13 February 1960 | France tests its first nuclear weapon. (n.d.). ICAN. https://www.icanw.org/france_tests_its_first_nuclear_weapon.
• Israel. (n.d.). Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation. https://armscontrolcenter.org/countries/israel/.
• Indian nuclear program. (2018). Atomic Heritage Foundation. https://ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ahf/history/indian-nuclear-program/.
• Pakistan country spotlight. (2026). NTI. https://www.nti.org/countries/pakistan/.
• China explodes its first nuclear bomb. (2023). EBSCO. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/china-explodes-its-first-nuclear-bomb.
• CNN Editorial Research. (2026). North Korea nuclear timeline fast facts. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/world/asia/north-korea-nuclear-timeline-fast-facts.

Nuclear proliferation

• Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. (n.d.) United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. https://disarmament.unoda.org/en/our-work/weapons-mass-destruction/nuclear-weapons/treaty-non-proliferation-nuclear-weapons.
• Isachenkov, V., Morris, A. (2026). The last U.S.-Russian nuclear pact is about to expire, ending a half-century of arms control. PBS News. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/the-last-u-s-russian-nuclear-pact-is-about-to-expire-ending-a-half-century-of-arms-control..
• Liang, X. (2026). New START expires as U.S. urges ‘modernized’ treaty. Arms Control Association. https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c4g31n4ey9go.
• Beale, J. (2026). Fears of a new arms race as US-Russia nuclear weapons treaty expires. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c4g31n4ey9go.
• The Limited Test Ban Treaty, 1963. (n.d.). Office of the Historian. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1961-1968/limited-ban.
• The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), 1968. (n.d.). Office of the Historian. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1961-1968/npt.
• Khan, R. (2016). ‘Pakistan had the ability to conduct a nuclear test in 1984’. Dawn. https://www.dawn.com/news/1261234#:~:text=Khan%20was%20addressing%20a%20gathering,at%20feedback@dawn.com.
• Strategic Arms Limitation Talks/Treaty (SALT) I and II. (n.d.). Office of the Historian. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1969-1976/salt.
• Kimball, D. (2022). START II and its extension protocol at a glance. Arms Control Association. https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/start-ii-and-its-extension-protocol-glance.
• Liang, X. (2026). New START at a glance. Arms Control Association.

Nuclear science

• Uranium enrichment. (2025). World Nuclear Association. https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/uranium-enrichment/.
• Barzashka, I. (2013). Converting a civilian enrichment plant into a nuclear weapons material facility. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. https://thebulletin.org/2013/10/converting-a-civilian-enrichment-plant-into-a-nuclear-weapons-material-facility/#.

What about Iran?

• List of member states. (2025). International Atomic Energy Agency. https://www.iaea.org/about/governance/list-of-member-states.
• Fields, A. (2026). IAEA chief warns against ‘illusion of an agreement’ on Iran’s nuclear weapon program. The Hill. https://thehill.com/policy/international/5832414-iran-nuclear-program-iaea-concerns/.
• Vega, C., Messick, G., Karzis, M. (2026). What it could take for the U.S. to remove highly enriched uranium from Iran. CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/what-it-could-take-for-us-to-remove-highly-enriched-uranium-from-iran-60-minutes-transcript/#:~:text=U.N.%20inspectors%20believe%20Iran%20has,facility%20deep%20under%20solid%20rock.
• US and Israel launch “preemptive” attack against Iran. (2026). Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israel-says-it-launched-pre-emptive-attack-against-iran-2026-02-28/#:~:text=The%20attack%2C%20coming%20after%20Israel,that%20could%20destabilise%20the%20region.
• The historic deal that will prevent Iran from acquiring a nuclear weapon. (n.d.). The White House Archive: President Barack Obama. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/node/328996#:~:text=Here’s%20what%20Iran’s%20Nuclear%20Program,Iran’s%20economy%20back%20into%20place.
• Phillips, J. (2015). The most glaring flaws in Obama’s Iran deal. The Heritage Foundation. https://www.heritage.org/global-politics/commentary/the-most-glaring-flaws-obamas-iran-deal#:~:text=The%20end%20result%20could%20be,%E2%80%9Csometimes/some%20places.%E2%80%9D.